extract key concepts Herder.
EPISTEMOLOGY
Discipline or branch of philosophy that studies the problems of knowledge, mainly of their origin, value and limits. Etymologically means "study of knowledge" or "science studies", also called "theory of knowledge." This was used since the late century modern XIX replacing the older concept of epistemology (philosophy of knowledge). Recently attributed address the role of science and scientific knowledge and then identify with the "philosophy of science."
Epistemology is concerned with answering questions like: What is known, What do we know?, How do we know what we know about the world is real? To these questions are given throughout the history of philosophy two currents:
rationalism that privileges the right against the senses and provides a dogmatic character of our knowledge and empiricism, which privileges the senses and gives a relative value. Were rationalist Plato, Descartes, Hume and empiricism.
Aristotle and Kant
maintain better balance postures. Rationalism and empiricism often paired respectively with an idealist ontological positions (the reality is a projection of consciousness) and realist (knowledge is a reflection of reality).
http://www.luventicus.org/articulos/03A018/epistemologia.html
Epistemology is the critical study of the conditions of possibility of human knowledge. It deals with answering questions like: What is known, What can we know? and how do we know what we know about the world is real?
Knowledge is a relationship between a subject and an object. No one without the other and also the presence of one implies the other. But are independent. For us the world, things are always something in the mind but also those things are, or at least it seems that they should be, outside. Now either we know the appropriate spiritually because they are there or plan the knowledge we have of them on the world and give them independent existence.
This is the problem of realism / idealism which in turn is related to the problem of the origin and sources of knowledge and attitudes of rationalism / empiricism. If the former is the reality seems to be the gateway to the mind are the senses. If, however, gives the idea first and then prioritize the reason the reality in front of the senses.
realism holds the independent existence of things, though not known. Idealism maintains that there are no other objects or things that the contents of his own conscience: idea, experiences, feelings, perceptions, or so-called ideal objects (mathematical entities, and consciousness-including God-who think) . Empiricism argues that ideas are copies of impressions and therefore limited and relative. Rationalism that ideas are innate, and then dogmatically asserts that account for a really appropriate the world of the senses.
With Heraclitus and Parmenides start epistemological approaches. A Heraclitus can be attributed to some fundamental empirical knowledge of nature in what appears to the senses (the manifold), while admitting at the same time the knowledge of the hidden logos (the one) that is beyond them. Parmenides clearly adopts a posture that makes it rational to reject the knowledge of the multiple and mutable things as appear to the senses misleading to accept only the knowledge of what is one and immutable, intelligible only to the intellect.
Sophists are inclined to skepticism, convention and relativism. Socrates represents the universality of reason and the concept. Plato's idealism transforms that intellectualism (the ideas rather than universal forms in our mind are spiritual realities independent) and innate (knowledge is to remember the ideas in a promotion purifying the body). Aristotle interprets the empirical knowledge of formulating a generally called moderate realism: Knowledge is a process of abstraction that begins in the senses. The form or idea but does not pre extracted from the common image that we provide.
Sto.Tomás knowledge adds to the process of a return to single object in particular to recognize things. Such qualification is required by the division between essence or idea, and individual concrete existence or be given by God in creation.
The main epistemological question of the Middle Ages the dispute is the so-called universals: Do abstract ideas exist only in the mind or which are realities that?. Nominalism is the great medieval contribution to the theory of knowledge: universal concepts are empty names or conventional signs which only serve to describe what is common to several individuals. Knowledge is always concrete, direct intuition of the entity or individual thing. In modern
the problem of knowledge is a priority. Two positions in opposition: rationalism (Descartes ...) and empiricism (Hume ...). The first seeks an accurate knowledge from evidence and using the deduction is to demonstrate mathematically reach all other truths. The starting point is the "cogito ergo sum." From innate ideas and God's special follows the world's existence and truth, leading to a dogmatic position. In empiricism all knowledge comes from the senses. The ideas are copies of impressions and can attest that nothing we respond to things. Knowledge is thus relative and does not provide certainty. There are only generalizations based on custom experience.
Kant
carried out the synthesis of these two positions by turning "Copernican" is the subject determines the object and not the reverse. Intuitions without concepts are blind, concepts without intuitions are empty. We can only know from the senses but the universal and necessary knowledge acquired through aprioristic structures of the subject. For this reason, Kant is a decisive authority in matters epistemological.
Marx understood the knowledge linked to practice. Analyzing social reality we see that the ideology or set of ideas that represent us is a fake concealing. The materialist view of history and praxis Consequently, the class struggle, recover and refund a lucid view of social inequality.
knowledge in Nietzsche's value for life. Will to power against the nihilism or denial of the world by the philosophy and moral judgments and replaced by pro life. Metaphysics
Discipline or part of philosophy that studies being, more fundamental and general concept can think human understanding. In this sense, identified with the ontology.
In Aristotle's books are named after the treaties made in physics. The tradition has interpreted the fact go after "goal" of physics, in the sense of a knowledge that goes "beyond physics", or knowledge of nature, in search of principles and concepts that may explain radical and abstract reality.
The main problem is the nature of metaphysics as science. This move towards a world beyond the senses. In classical and medieval ages and from Aristotle was regarded as "first philosophy" core for the other branches of philosophy. But Kant denies the possibility to consider that can not compare their statements, not based on sensory experience. For similar reason is discredited in contemporary philosophy in finding that his statements are not verifiable.
Class Reference classical metaphysics is to find an ultimate explanation of reality by resorting to principles that are beyond the world of experience. The first to explicitly start this tradition is Plato. The true reality is ideas, through the mediation of the demiurge is the sensible realities as copies and images similar to those ideas. From here the split occurs that draws on traditional philosophical thought, from Parmenides to Hegel, to explain the immediate experience of a transcendent principle, that is beyond her. Aristotle
reunification is the essence or Platonic ideas by integrating them into sensible things thus forming substances or multiple realities composed of matter and form and governed by the four causes. The substance is changed as well which is going from strength to act.
This metaphysical consideration of the natural world, is collected by the medieval scholastics (Thomas Aquinas) that founded on the concept of God or Supreme Being subsisting by itself. All things have their existence by the creation of God who saved a relationship of analogy.
The rationalism of Descartes provides three major metaphysical realities or substances. God, world, yo. Among the latter two were given a perfect match guaranteed by God. Hume, however, in an opposite direction denies the existence of these substances "metaphysical" reality reducing the synthesis of views
Kant first posed the question of metaphysics seems to be a company which is both necessary and impossible to reason, and decided to analyze the limits and possibilities in the Critique of Pure Reason. The result is the denial of the possibility of metaphysics as science. Traditional objects of metaphysics, God, world and I are from the point of view knowledge, only regulatory thinking ideas and postulates of practical reason.
Nietzsche's philosophy is a global disqualification of metaphysics. Moral resentment is the result of not having the courage to face life with passion and risk taking refuge in rational constructs to compensate our frustration. Metaphysics unfolded the real world of feeling in another apparent reasonableness and vacuum (nihilism)
ETHICS
Discipline or part of philosophy whose object of study is the moral. On the moral is to understand the set of rules or customs (mores) governing the conduct of a person. Ethics is the rational reflection on what constitutes good behavior, which is the foundation of that goodness and what they are the judgments that were made.
ethics is based on a rational analysis of moral conduct, recognizes diversity and cares about its merits and criticism. In short, ethics is the science of morality. The main ethical problem is knowing what is good. The most significant responses have been reformulated Aristotle eudaemonism then by Sto. Thomas, Epicureanism, the Emotiv moral of Hume, Kant's formal ethics or Sartre, and critical conceptions of Marx, Nietzsche and Freud.
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In Plato's moral wisdom, purification and ascent to the Good itself. Moral values \u200b\u200bare universal and absolute to belong to the world of ideas led by the same well.
good for Aristotle is not in itself and separately, are enrolled in each substance and order yours. Happiness, eudaimonia, is the end of life, and can not consist only in an activity of soul, so perfect happiness must lie in the activity "most excellent": the life of the mind. This happiness however it should be accompanied by the implementation of the other powers and needs of man always looking average. It Virtue is on the other hand is defined as acquired habit or disposition. +++++
Epicureanism In the good is identified with the pleasure taken in moderation and measure to make it more durable and stable. Stoicism in the good and happiness lies in submission to fate and inner serenity. Both are ethical civic disenchantment.
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scholastic Christian ethics based on love. Its ultimate foundation is the natural law infused by God in creation. God is the ultimate happiness and identification with him and his way of being that is embodied in the eternal law. Both Aristotle and the Scholastics are examples of materials and teleological ethics.
Kantian ethics is, however, deontological theories model. The practical reason is self-imposed by the formal categorical imperative: "work only according to the maxim that you want to become, at the same time, a universal law" act of duty. This ethics of Kant called "formal" and "autonomous", while the remainder are considered "material" and "heteronomous" in them because the human will is determined to work for practical reasons.
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Utilitarianism defines good and useful, and this, as "the greatest good for the greatest number of people" to what is necessary, by a utilitarian calculation to assess the amount of pleasure and pain, happiness and unhappiness, satisfaction and dissatisfaction in most citizenship.
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moral criticizes Marxism as an ideology concealing and interested and proposes the implementation of classless society as good or end which essentially subordinate collective actions
Nietzsche criticizes traditional morality as false and resentment against life and proposes the creation of values \u200b\u200bas the great ethical act of Superman himself. After nihilism or destruction of moral philosophy and western civilization man reborn to the spontaneity of life after going through the stages of a camel, lion and child.
Existentialism well as freedom posed by making it the status of any good deed (formalism). BEAUTY
Discipline or part of the philosophy which aims to study the beauty in general and, in a special way, the conditions under which it perceives and creates the beautiful, and the criteria used value.
currently includes the study of various aesthetic phenomena, such as works of art, the aesthetic feeling, attitude and value aesthetics, is the theory or philosophy of art. The main aesthetic theory are to:
In Plato, beauty is identified with the Good and the art is a copy of nature which in turn is a copy of Ideas
By contrast, during the Renaissance, contempt for the sensible and worldly of the Middle Ages began in this period the appreciation of nature and sensuality.
Baumgarten (modern era) introduces the term "aesthetics", indicating to him a kind of experience or knowledge "sensible and dark" compared to the clarity of logic. Finally, Kant believes that beauty is what inspires in us an attitude of disinterest.
Early aesthetic, torn from Plato and Aristotle. In both, the nature of beauty and art are treated separately without linking beauty with the art, relegating to second place the pleasant experience that produces art. In Plato, beauty is identified with the good and beautiful is what is good for the individual and the state, while the works of art or the arts themselves considered them-on the basis of the theory of ideas-a mere imitation of an imitation. For Aristotle, art is knowledge production. It's more art than the beautiful, which is no longer identified ideally with the good, the beauty is in the form.
Exaltation of the Renaissance aesthetic, seen in the art, especially painting, a window to the contemplation of nature, and understands the beauty and awareness of the harmony that exists within her.
The modern aesthetic is born with the work of AG Baumgarten Aesthetica, rationalist philosopher, a disciple of C. Wolff, who, around 1750 introduced the term to apply to a branch of philosophy, "younger sister of logic" which will examine not clear and distinct knowledge, typical of the latter, but the sensitive knowledge and "dark." The beauty and perfection is leaving sensitive own metaphysical approach of classical philosophy and medieval studies
Kant in his Critique of Judgement (1790) he calls aesthetic judgments of taste judgments. The same valuation or aesthetic judgments is his selfless character. The aesthetic value is produced when contemplating a work selflessly not for the content of what is contemplated. In the "Critique of Pure Reason" is called aesthetics aprioristic study of the conditions of sensibility.
From the nineteenth and twentieth century aesthetics is understood both as an analysis of aesthetic feeling and philosophy of the arts.
SOCIOLOGY
discipline or science that aims to study social facts and laws that govern them. Sociology examines the social structure and their groups, the relationship between individual and society, stratification, mobility and social change, the authority, the source of power and the establishment of civil society and the various theories that interpret them. +++++++++++++++++++++
Featured Sociologists who were Auguste Comte's philosophy of independence from considering an "engineering or physics social, Durkheim who said the "facts social "empirical as its object of study and therefore should be treated as things, Weber stressed the intentional nature of these events and, therefore, the need to" understand "and not just describe them. Marx's historical materialism may be regarded as a Sociology of the "praxis."
Sociology began as an independent empirical science Auguste Comte who is also called "social physics." After receiving clear influence of evolutionism and Darwinism and relies on the biological model to develop an organismic conception of social life. Human society is a real body (Herbert Spencer).
proliferate during the nineteenth century in Europe social surveys and case studies that investigate the crisis in the transition to the industrial and social revolutions. From the bottom of these descriptive sociological research, presents the first scientific sociological trend: Émile Durkheim, who identifies the "social fact" as the proper object of study. Sociology preferably acquires a descriptive and explanatory nature of social facts.
Max Weber said in Germany the beginning of a "comprehensive sociology." The aim of sociology is the understanding of social action that is, those events caused by human activity which is essential intentionality. These social facts are not access if not through the understanding, the only way to capture, no laws, but their sense .
Marxism interprets social reality from historical materialism. Sociology is, in this case, the same Marxism interprets history as a class struggle. The social organization depends directly on the production relations of each epoch. Such relationships are conflicting in nature and lead to revolution and equality.
Drive In North America the center of sociological research American is the "Chicago School" that develops a predominantly urban sociology characterized by a functionalist empirical orientation and the adoption of a methodology based on observation and case histories. In addition to the use of mid-range theories. Idealism
philosophical school or holding it to be, so there is first the idea really well as immaterial, in our thinking or from God and that it constitutes or represents reality.
Ontologically primariness therefore affirms the idea, and epistemologically means that the subject is reality in the act of affirming, creation to know. It is opposed to realism which asserts that the reality outside the mind is first and as such is imposed upon meeting. The reality is as we know it says idealism know things as they are proposed as opposed to realism. Idealism conceives an active subject, creator and usually occurs in parallel to rationalism. The realism of a taxable person, receiver and perceptions that are associated with empiricism.
The first idealist Plato to conceive the world of ideas as protorrealidad and sensible model of the world. While these ideas to provide real existence independent of our minds should be considered the first realistic. Idealism was developed on especially in the modern era with Kant who acquires a moderate formulation ideal for pre-existing dimension, the "a priori" are only a formal character (transcendental idealism) and especially Hegel, Fichte and Schelling, for whom the idea is absolute: Everything.
Leibniz applies the term to Platonism in affirming that the true reality is in the ideas. Plato is considered the first realistic because it gives the world of ideas the first true character and exemplary. However, Kant distinguishes empirical idealism, which casts doubt (Descartes) or deny (Berkeley) the existence of external things or formal transcendental idealism: its own. The subject is formal external things.
The first of the modern idealists is Berkeley, with his claim that the absence of matter, or immaterial, and phenomenalism. "To be is to perceive or be perceived" In reality, the idealism of Berkeley is a phenomenon. The being of things consists in being perceived, is the phenomenon.
The great modern development of idealism is the one for the so-called "German idealism", which has its beginnings in the late s. XVIII (Fichte, Schelling and Hegel), aims to find a system of thinking that eliminates the distinction between subject and object, between self and world, a distinction that is experienced as a contradiction.
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Materialism
School or set of theories, along the history of thought have argued, as a fundamental principle in the world "there is only matter" or that "everything is matter or is reducible the matter. "
Since the concept of matter has varied over time and also not very clearly defined, and there have been various kinds of philosophical materialism. The first materials were Leucippus and Democritus for whom reality consists of atoms and void. In modern times Hobbes and La Mettrie formulate a mechanistic, deterministic materialism. Until the man is a machine subject to fixed laws. The naturalism of the Enlightenment, Darwin's evolutionism and scientism of the nineteenth century eventually set up in the positivist world view in which there is only the verifiable and therefore the sensitive material. In Marxism and historical materialism this firm ground, sensible and material, labor or human praxis.
ancient classical materialism embodies the atomism of Leucippus and Democritus, whose basic claim is that there are only atoms and the void, so all of nature and the changes that take place can be explained by the shocks which occur randomly between the indivisible smallest units of matter endowed with eternal motion. This statement eternal motion of matter and became the paradigm for all subsequent materialism. Epicureanism and stoicism continue atomistic materialism: the Epicureans maintaining a world composed of atoms, though not wholly subject to physical determinism, and the Stoics with all deterministic in nature.
In the seventeenth century, in the midst of modern philosophy, Thomas Hobbes repeats the basic affirmation of atomism old: everything in the universe are moving bodies and what is not body not part of the universe. This primer of British empiricism, also applies the principles of materialism to psychological explanations, the problems of language and social relations and insists on determinism.
But the scope of the materialistic attitude achieves its greatest extent with the French illustrated s. XVIII: the materialism of the Enlightenment, by authors such as La Mettrie, Voltaire, Diderot, d'Alembert and Holbach, is established as the substrate desecrated and naturalistic ideas that will shape much of the secular vision of the world which Western man .
century scientific discoveries XIX, as the production of substances organics in the laboratory (which starts with the synthesis of urea in 1828), the development of new atomic theory, new physical theories based on the concept of matter and force as ultimate realities, the principle of conservation of matter and energy in all changes, progress of physiology and, especially, the theory of Darwinian evolution, not only reaffirmed the convictions materialists and naturalists of the French Enlightenment, but gave them a scientific basis seemed bridging the gap between the physical-chemical and biochemical, between life and inanimate matter, and between man and animal.
In the nineteenth and twentieth century advances in physics, biology, anthropology and sociology, have led to the conclusion that life, man and society itself are evolutionary products of nature. Materialism is identified with the proper scientific attitude. The positivism of Comte is a clear example of this attitude. Given this generalization of materialism, materialism should be differentiated Marx considered more realistic: The foundational reality is not so much the isolated nature as the dialectical relation of human action it is work. The story is also the result of human practice rather than a random or an absolute determinism of matter.
ESSENCE
What one thing really is, what defines or characterizes more nuclear. His property is identified, its definition, what is more properly.
Plato uses this term to describe the "reality" of a thing, what a thing is true, so the idea of \u200b\u200bparticipating. For Aristotle, the essence is the form that identifies or defines a substance. Unlike Plato, is inseparable from matter. At St. Thomas the essence remains as power or ability to be that only the creation or existence being received.
Existentialism into existence precedes essence: the human being is defined by a prior essence, for an ideal that has to implement, but it is being defined as living and built by their freedom . FORM
That by which a being is what it is. Plato is one way of naming ideas. In Aristotle, on the one hand, the corresponding metaphysical element of matter, with which constitutes the substance of each thing, the theory of hylomorphic. On the other hand it is also one of the four cases, that precisely expresses the essence. If the elements or the contents of a being is the subject, how is the configuration or structure that identifies it.
Form for Plato was the idea or model that was separate from the sensible reality. Aristotle, the one with the subject in the concept of substance. All there are substances composed of matter and form (hylomorphic). The Scholastic theory not only admitted hylomorphic, but made of matter that explains the principle of individuality of all things and the way the universal nature of things. FIELD
That's what things are made. This definition applies both to physical things (properly "materials") as which are not, for example, the subject matter of a book. Scientifically real matter is perceptible by the senses and measurable. From the metaphysical point of view matter and form are correlative concepts. The matter of something is its content and form its structure or configuration.
This notion of Aristotle does not match our physical substance. The matter, which gives the name of Hyle, general wood and timber, is that part of reality, along with the form, constitutes the whole of a single substance. Thus introduced into Western thought that all things are made of elements that maintain among themselves a certain relationship composition or structure. ++++++++++++++++
Aristotelian matter is, therefore, "material" (the only material principles themselves, in a physical sense, are the four elements), it is a metaphysical principle that implies that everything is explained by way of a composition of two correlative elements, matter and form, and that the same material is itself a relative concept, whose nature must be specified indicating form for which is matter. PERCEPTION
Awareness of a sensation. Is a physiological process by which the subject transforms the various sensory impressions (stimulus) in a mental representation sensitive. It is the result of a collection of the senses in which influence both stimuli that come to us either from outside or from our own body as subjective components that receive them, are the characteristics of our senses, mental patterns or previous experiences that we project on these stimuli.
Remember what happened on the course studied the pair figure-ground, laws of perception, subjective standards ... In perception we apprehend reality, not as a sum of isolated impressions but as an overall package organized, which then we can distinguish the sensations that compose it.
For Aristotle, as well empirical, perception is the first step of knowledge. On the various sensory perceptions "common sense" unifies a ghost image or underlying the process of abstraction that makes the intellect. In Kant's Transcendental Aesthetic any perception is shaped by aprioristic structures of space and time. ABSTRACTION
Operation of the mind that seeks to separate, what is this intuitively makes sense, an essential characteristic that represents either the nature of an object or property belonging to him, or what in common between multiple objects, and through which we say we understand what are those things. The result of the abstraction, the abstracted or abstract, is the concept or idea in the traditional sense, that from which it abstracts is the perception given by the senses.
The first theory of abstraction we find in Aristotle, who opposes the intuition of essences or direct collection of ideas by the mind, as Plato; Since any idea or any universal concept of science must come somewhat from the experience, the universal concepts are derived from the induction that is, having regard to that is common or similar in several individuals, or are a result of the enlightening activity of intellect, which captures the essence of what he calls object-sensitive image.
The medieval scholastic uses abstraction to give substance to the realism of the concepts to admit that the essence is in the order allowing it to be abstracted from them. But William of Ockham rejects all knowledge that is due to abstraction. Things are unique and not abstract knowledge no common essence that lies within them (nominalism). The essences or ideas are names for these unique objects. Seventeenth-century empiricism emphasizes this aspect. Locke says simple ideas are passively received by the understanding that the general and abstract becomes separated from them when the various circumstances. For Hume there is no generalization abstraction but by custom. The ideas are copies of the prints not the result of an abstraction. +++++++++++
CONCEPT
is the result of the process of abstraction. It is a mental representation of an ideational. A concept is distinguished from an image (an immediate result of sensible perception or memory) that it has specific characteristics, reflecting a particular object, while the concept contains only general characteristics, essential and defining, obtained by abstraction. The mental image of a mountain has the shape of a mountain, while the concept has only the defining characteristics necessarily apply to any mountain, "high peaks," for example. Concepts may be universal, particular and unique. Each concept has two dimensions: scope and understanding.
universal concepts have always raised concerns about its reality. In Plato are the equivalent of Aristotle's ideas and forms. In the Middle Ages affirmed its exaggerated realism real existence nominalism, on the contrary, they were mere names for the resemblance of things. Kant made clear the illusion of concepts without experience, "concepts without experience are empty, and experiences without concepts are blind." Modern universal concepts are not recognized existence, have only a logical character. For example, the concepts they are responsible two fundamental properties: scope and understanding. TRIAL
is the union of a subject and a predicate. Mental act on the understanding states that the subject belongs or not the predicate. Is the equivalent of "statement" on Aristotelian and scholastic philosophy.
Trials may be as universal quantity, special and unique. According to the affirmative or negative quality. Traditionally also divided the analytic and synthetic judgments. The former are a priori and a posteriori seconds. Kant nevertheless provides the possibility of "synthetic judgments a priori."
Remember what happened in the course studied logic. First the distinction between: a concept whose expression is a term, trial or relationship between two concepts whose expression is a proposition and reasoning or relationship of several trials and whose expression is the argument or inference. Then the box oopsiciones of the trial when we saw the syllogistic. And especially the classification scheme of science and Kant's Transcendental Analytic.
The analytic and synthetic judgments are each equivalent to relations of ideas and matters of fact (Hume), and truths of reason and truths of fact (Leibniz). Analytic judgments are those in which the predicate is included in the subject. His truth can be determined independently of experience. Synthetic judgments are statements whose predicate is not included in the subject. Its truth depends on what happens in reality (a posteriori). The analytical, being a priori, universal and necessary, but not expand our knowledge, the synthetic, being a posteriori, expand knowledge, but they are neither universal nor necessary Hence Kant concludes that science must be based on an intermediate class of lawsuits: the "synthetic judgments a priori, that are necessary and universal at the same time expand the knowledge. Rationalism
School or philosophical, born in France in the s. XVII opposed to empiricism, which argues that the knowledge base is not the data of the senses, but the ideas characteristic of the human spirit.
Its main representatives are Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz. And the main features are: the affirmation of the existence of innate ideas, direct-almost coincidence between thought and reality, knowledge is deductive type, as given in mathematics, is attributed to the substance essential nature (both Descartes substances, the one substance of Spinoza and Leibniz's monads). We turn to God as the guarantor of knowledge and order.
The characteristic form of rational argument exclude recourse to the experience and refers exclusively to the right. In general, philosophical attitude of confidence in reason that exalts the importance of ideas and independent of experience.
Intuition
immediate knowledge type, in which the object is captured directly by the relevant authority, sensitivity or understanding. In an ordinary sense is understood as the "present" to know something without being aware of their reasons. This speech, for example, or women's intuition to play and win in the bag.
Intuition can be sensible or intellectual. An intuition is always immediate, does not institute any steps or mediation. So it is proper to the senses and is much discussed as intellectual intuition or concepts that are rather the result of abstraction. Aristotle saw it and Thomas. Descartes, however, considered the starting point of inferential and Kant's philosophy denies considering the empty concepts, content always in need of sensible intuition. AWARENESS
is the ability to represent objects in the knowledge representation. It is knowing something giving an account is known. Consciousness (representation) of the world implies consciousness of itself as knowing subject and therefore can take the concept in two senses: the cross (of objects) and reflective (about yourself).
For the first every man is able to mentally represent the world's conscience is the individual's ability to understand the world around him, including his own body. For the second to have consciousness, subjectivity means, be subject.
When this object is directly representing myself, the flame self-consciousness as a moral value or duty, also called conscience.
The first appeals to conscience, understood as self-reflexive knowledge, occurred in the "know thyself" of Socrates, or the "dialogue of the soul with itself", Plato, or the distinction between 'man outside "and" inner man Augustine of Hippo. However, the consideration of consciousness as a matter of philosophy begins with the Meditations of Descartes.
For him, consciousness is the only source of certainty and knowledge model and also identify with the ego or the substance of the individual, "I think therefore I am" is nothing but the expression of pure self-consciousness. The self present itself as the first clear data on which to build or deduct any further knowledge.
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A Hume should, however, the prospect of seeing consciousness as if it were a flow of impressions, a "bundle", a "stream" or a "river", ie as a set of experiences with no identity of subject and no substantial character.
With the arrival of the representatives of the "Philosophy of suspicion" is subjected to the traditional notion of critical consciousness. Nietzsche affirms the social origin of consciousness and the need to expose as really hides behind it as moral consciousness, Marx is merely a reflection of the economic relations of production, and according to Freud is a product of the unconscious. Empiricism
Philosophical doctrine contrary to rationalism, which holds that ideas and knowledge in general from experience. To Aristotle we owe the first line of thought that systematically links knowledge to sense experience, but empiricism, and systematic philosophical doctrine, it is characteristic of English philosophy of the modern and enlightened.
The precursor of theory is Francis Bacon (1561-1626) who emphasizes the need for induction and observation to do science. Those who give consistently to empiricism are, however, Locke (1632-1704), Berkeley (1685-1753) and Hume (1711-1776). They were responsible for the classic version of empiricism.
Those state that there are innate ideas. Understanding, before any experience, is but a "clean slate." That is, the knowledge comes from sensation, or experience internal or external thus affirms both temporal priority of sensitive knowledge (knowledge begins with experience) as its epistemological or logical priority (knowledge requires experience as a justification .) The knowledge model is the empirical sciences. It calls into question the dogmatic assertions of reason such as substance, self, God, the more worrying about the moral and political philosophy of metaphysics. Front
rationalism taking place in the continent, empiricism is making headway in Britain. The empiricist par excellence of the contemporary age is called logical empiricism or positivism. Its two fundamental empiricist principles are: the principle of verifiability, "a statement is true when it can be experimentally verified" or other formulations more or less radical, and the reductionism of the concepts are not logical observation sentences. Was supported mainly by the Vienna Circle. Karl R. Popper is a criticism of the positivism in general from a critical empirical standpoint, the author called critical rationalism. Its principle of falsifiability is diametrically opposed of inductivism involved the verification principle. CONSENSUS
Agreement freely taking individuals, components of a social group on controversial issues, in particular, values \u200b\u200band attitudes. In the philosophers of the social contract (Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau) consensus is the same covenant or act according to the constitution of civil society from the natural state.
was considered formerly from Aristotle and scholasticism especially to demonstrate the existence of God) as "truth test": If everyone agrees to an opinion is accepted as true. It is sometimes equated with the meaning common.
The Frankfurt School (Benjamin, Adorno, Horkheimer, Habermas, Apel and Habermas) consensus is the result of "communicative action" in which humans through language and argumentation arguments aim to reach agreement or criteria universal moral and social order. Then they can be considered as true. (Consensus theory of truth).
The consensus is highly appropriate in those matters not seem to be achievable objective knowledge, for example, certain moral principles or decisions, above all, practical-moral.
SOCIAL CONTRACT
Overall the social contract is an agreement between individuals, which, either implicitly or expressly, determined to give up natural rights to become subjects of civil rights thus constituting the state and society, its rules and rights and authority. Early theories
contractarians due to the Sophists. For them the moral laws and policies are not natural but the result of a convention or agreement of the citizens of each polis, and therefore are related to it. This fund
conventionalist actual contractarian theories arise, which proliferate between the Renaissance and the s. XVIII, his most notable defenders are Hobbes, Locke and especially Rousseau. In all the company is established by an agreement between free individuals from their natural state does not need an agreement to destroy or ensure the rights. In this covenant is Hobbes claudication of freedom and leads to an authoritarian political system, which alone could bring peace in the natural state of war of all against all. In Locke the pact is democratic, it is for an elected official and coordinate revocable and freedoms of all Rousseau pact replaces the state of natural goodness in a society that corrupts man. PHENOMENON
In Kant the term has the object of knowledge as we know it. Opposes the noumenon, the thing itself, which would be outside of our way to know or be known as an intellectual intuition. The phenomenon is not mere appearance of things to the senses, but everything we know by experience and, in some sense, construction (transcendental) of the human subject by the a priori forms of sensibility (SYT).
Subsequently, the "phenomenon" came to signify, more generally, any "fact" or "event" that could become the subject of a scientific description. Thus, in the empirical sciences, the phenomenon is the fact that it takes as its object of study, while in Husserl's phenomenology phenomenon is the "data" of consciousness whose essence is described (not built, as in Kant). ROMANTICISM
In principle literary and artistic movement that spread throughout Europe in the late s. Eighteenth and early nineteenth century, (1800-1850) whose main characteristic is the opposition to the aesthetic criteria of classicism, rationalism and Enlightenment. Emerges as a literary movement in Germany around the magazine "Athaeneum" Schlegel, Novalis, and the brothers Grimm.
In a broader sense is also a state of mind, a mentality of the times. It comes down to an aesthetic movement but it is a worldview inspired by the idealistic philosophy overestimates compared with Enlightenment rationalism, irrational ways of access to reality: (intuition, feeling, imagination).
It puts particular emphasis on the individual, beyond the abstract and general, both in art and literature, history and philosophy, and seek their ways of life and thought in the Middle Ages and culture popular.
From Romanticism emerges a new conception of nature, conceived as an organism evolving, and a renewed interest in various forms of naturalistic mysticism.
God and nature are synthesized very consistent with a feature more typical romantic, the "longing" or nostalgia for the infinite or absolute.
This is an approach or turn to religion in general. The work of F. René de Chateaubriand, The Genius of Christianity (1802), in the Catholic camp, and the "theology of feeling" of Schleiermacher, the Protestant pietism, are examples.
With an unusual interest in history, the value of tradition and the idea of \u200b\u200bcollective consciousness, which he called "spirit of the people." From Rousseau's thesis builds a romantic theory of society and the state, and therefore the ideal man is a hero revolutionary.
Freedom is the great concept of time. Lived tragically, as sometimes frustrated passion, is in love (Wherter) or political (anti-bourgeois and nationalist youth). Titans of the romantic individual who rebels against the limits, to the finite and yearns for the impossible. Prometheus is the symbol. Schiller had composed the Ode to Joy, celebrating the creative impulse of man. Beethoven is covered in the choral Ninth Symphony and the appointment to complete Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit.
philosophy of Romanticism is the idealism represented by Fichte, Schelling and Hegel. Idealism takes Kantian philosophy there which was blocked in the "in-itself unknowable, or perplexity in the dialectic of reason and the desire of the will (practical reason) to overcome it. For the idealistic reason: it is infinite, absolute and creative. (I, Idea, Spirit) universal, capable of uniting all of humanity, integrating its peculiarities. Whose root is active producer of all reality and that it contains within itself the reasons individual rational individual rather than those who "have" the right. Fichte denies the Kantian in-itself, the object is created entirely by the subject ("subjective idealism").
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For Schelling the in-itself is, however, the absolute goal that keeps us in an infinite power to attain it ("objective idealism"). Hegel sums up both in his "absolute idealism": the in-itself, the only substance, the Absolute, is the idea, or consciousness in its becoming empty dialectical objective is to recover after nature as the fullness of both.
Ideology (Marx)
system of representations (images, myths and concepts) endowed with existence and historical role within a given society. Men interpret her life and social function.
According to Marx, social life is the result of production and is alienated in origin. Thus the representation that emerges from it is false and Marx defined as a set of ideas and "nebulous formations" or "sublimation" which give a distorted image and falsifying of reality and the conditions under which life develops men . Men and their relationships are well invested as a camera obscura. +++++++
acquire ideology seeks consistency own and stand as true real system compared to the material world, forgetting their dependent nature, not substantive. Its function is to conceal, deface, sublimate, and supplant the social situation of alienation (Feurebach). STRUCTURE
Itemset ordered that relate and govern according to a law giving rise to a coherent whole and self-adjusted. In a narrow sense would be only the internal configuration of things, the skeleton or frame considered regardless of their development and their details.
The concept of structure can be applied to any biological reality, mathematics, psychology, linguistics or ethnological. Marx uses this concept to explain both the economic base of society (infrastructure, all the means of production and relations of production) and superstructure (set of social production, legal and ideological arising from above).
In the 60 and 70 appeared philosophical, structuralism, characterized by applying a methodology for social science faces the historicism and subjectivism and based on this concept of structure. Positivism
school
theoretical and philosophical attitude which holds that the only authentic knowledge is characterized by scientific facts and subject to the condition of verifiability of his statements.
own positivism is also a critical attitude towards traditional philosophy, especially metaphysics. The "positive spirit" is faithful to these principles:
phenomenon: the reality is manifested in phenomena, there is only prints and copies of them in mind (remember Hume), any notion of a hidden essence beyond the phenomena is illusory
Nominalism: abstract knowledge is not knowing things in themselves or universal, but widespread mere individual things, and Descriptivism: Rejected the value judgments and normative statements, as devoid of cognitive meaning and morality attributed to a purely descriptive value. Unit method of science, there is only one area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, reducible to observation and experience, ultimately to one science, preferably physics.
Hume owes its origin appears as a philosophical school in nineteenth-Comte: understanding, society and humanity go through three stages: theological, phenomena are explained by supernatural forces, the metaphysical or abstract, when man replaced the supernatural for the abstract, and the scientific or positive, when relinquishing absolute knowledge and we are content to know only relations between phenomena, ie the law; This is the ultimate goal of the human mind.
In the period between the twenties and thirties are developing the so-called logical positivism, positivism or crystallizing around the so-called Vienna Circle. Center is named for his studio, not on facts but on logical analysis of language. Its most important feature is the verification principle, under which only have meaning those statements that are subject to verification. PHENOMENOLOGY
School and philosophical theory that aims to describe the meaning of things living them as phenomena of consciousness. Comes with Edmund Husserl, Max Scheler, Martin Heidegger, J.-P. Sartre, and M. Merleau-Ponty.
Through the phenomenological method seeks to get "things themselves" on the basis of their own subjectivity as things are experienced primarily as acts of conscience and the fundamental property of consciousness is intentionality, his permanent address to things . It is opposed to realism because things are first in the consciousness and is opposed to idealism because it fit the subject and its structures, but are revealed to him.
phenomenological reduction: it consists in "putting bracketed ', by way of a suspension epojé trial or whether or not to accept things at least are made to my conscience.
eidetic reduction: in this internal phenomenon to my conscience put in parentheses the individual and specific and we're left with essence.
transcendental reduction: as the last stronghold, if we also brackets the same essence we are left with the transcendental subjectivity and reveals that the same consciousness and the world is given intentionally.
Husserl's phenomenology identifies a "transcendental idealism." A science based on the a priori goal of essences that are revealed in consciousness as opposed to a priori cognitive structures of the subject (Kant).
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HERMENEUTICS
generally means the art of interpretation of a text or an event to gain understanding. Philosophically it means that current of thought that explains the facts for their meaning, enclosing the intent rather than their quantitative measurement. To do this the interpreter must immerse in the experience of the other, from their own feelings and from there to understand, discover its meaning.
hermeneutical method is typical of the human sciences, and is the counterpart of the method of natural sciences. There are realities irreducible to mathematization and contrast own empirical method also requires an explanation and therefore need another method. These realities are different expressions of culture, the historical performance of the human spirit. "We explain nature, we understand the culture" Dilthey said.
hermeneutic For Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Heidegger, Gadamer, and Ricoeur's understanding is a process that addresses the experiences of the spirit. This path can lead to a heightened subjectivism. Therefore the researcher should be aware of their own contribution to the understanding. Can not start from zero and therefore should be aware of your judgments and feelings prior to, once you understand the phenomenon, criticizing the pre-understanding of the departed. This is what is called the hermeneutic circle. The feeling experienced is the point of departure and arrival of all understanding, which is rather the attempt to reconstruct in my own experience the experience of the other.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
term coined by Freud to describe his theory of the psyche and its therapeutic practice. First appeared in 1896, and its fundamental hypothesis is the claim of the unconscious as a determinant of mental life.
Freud The first investigation focuses on the study of hysterical symptoms. Thanks to hypnosis first and then the mechanism of association, Freud discovered the unconscious sexual origin of the cause of the disease. Neurotic patients seem to get sick from an experience of seduction by an adult, a fact which was forgotten by the action repression.
The development of human personality is linked to the development of the various stages of sexuality, which appear linked to the different erogenous zones, ie the different body sites associated with the pursuit of pleasure. These stages are: the oral, anal, the phallic and, after a period of latency, genital. In the development of these stages conflicts arise that can lead to fixations and regressions. One of the highlights of this evolution is called the Oedipus complex or Electra in which the child identifies with the opposite sex parent. The child discovers sexual differentiation and the law that prevents you from accessing your love object. From this when subjectivity is presented as being divided, fractured between unconscious desire and the consciousness that represents.
From this Freud identified three instances in personality: The "I" or consciousness due to the adjustment of desires into reality, the id or those unconscious desires and the superego or ego ideal (internalization of rules and prohibitions .) In plain words: we are all of us an adult or a child and a parent.
The relationship between these three instances arises in Freud as a play of forces in which it will have to move from their original objects censored to others who receive the approval of the superego (sublimation) or simply repressed. In that case remains unconscious and the analyst should "listening" the language of the unconscious, through the slip, disconnected words, dreams, and the joke and the joke.
dissemination of psychoanalysis has led to different schools and trends: dissent in Adler, Jung, Lacan ... Guattari, Foucault, and Derrida.
Freud is considered one of the so-called "masters of suspicion" to raise questions about consciousness and leadership of human beings. UNCONSCIOUS
One of the three levels of mental activity (the other two are the conscious and the preconscious), according to Freud, drives home desires and repressed or censored not emerge into consciousness and are timeless.
preconscious contents may be available for consciousness, whereas the unconscious can never come to surface at this level so involuntarily manifest in dreams and acts failed. In a first stage) Freud placed only in the unconscious these repressed desires. From 1923 to Freud change his conception of personality structure in the three known instances: the id (or id), the superego (or super ego) and self (or ego). Also embraces the unconscious aspects of ego and superego.
Existentialism (Sartre)
Corriente filosofica que considera la existencia humana como lo más originario, irreductible al pensamiento y a la totalidad y como libertad, algo que se va haciendo permanentemente a sí misma.
Surge en Europa entre las dos guerras mundiales en un contexto de radical desorientación y desarraigo. Sus autores fundamentales son: Gabriel Marcel, Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger y Jean-Paul Sartre. Como antecedente principal hay que considerar a Soren Kierkegaard. Y en una orbita más externa a Albert Camus y Miguel de Unamuno.
Epistemológicamente se sirve del método fenomenológico de Husserl toda la realidad se agota en el fenómeno cuyo significado más esencial descubrimos por una intuición pure. In existentialism that essence or more essential is there.
Man's essence is his existence, what will be done freely. Something specific and unique compared to all rational Hegel. Thrown into existence is being defined to be. Therefore absolute freedom, ability and choice decisisón himself.
